Abstract: Most of the World’s germanium (Ge) is mined from Ge-rich lignite, where it is commonly associated with elevated arsenic (As), tungsten (W) and beryllium (Be) contents. Over the past decade, new evidence showing that World-class Ge deposits result from the interaction of hydrothermal fluids with organic matter in coal seams has emerged. Yet, the chemical state of Ge and associated metals in lignite remains poorly understood. We used Mega-pixel Synchrotron X-ray Fluorescence (MSXRF), X-ray Absorption Near Edge Structure (XANES) and Extended X-ray Absorption Fine Structure (EXAFS) to characterize the oxidation states and chemical bonding environment of Ge, As, and W in two world-class Mesozoic Ge-in-lignite deposits (Lincang, Yunnan, southwestern China; Wulantuga, Inner Mongolia, northeastern China); in lignite-bearing uranium (U) ores from the Beverley deposit (South Australia) hosted in Eocene sandstones; and in lignite and preserved wood in late Oligocene-Miocene fluviatile sediments (Gore, Southland, New Zealand). The aim was to improve our understanding of the enrichment mechanism of Ge in lignite and better evaluate the environmental mobility of Ge and some of the associated metals (specifically As and W) in lignite ores. In all samples, chemical maps show that Ge is distributed homogeneously (down to 2μm) within the organic matter. XANES and EXAFS data show that Ge exists in the tetravalent oxidation state and in a distorted octahedral coordination with O, consistent with complexing of Ge by organic ligands. In some pyrite-bearing samples, a minor fraction of Ge is also present as Ge(IV) in association with pyrite. In contrast, As displays a more complex speciation pattern, sometimes even in a single sample, including As(III), As(V), and As(−I/+II) in solid solution in sulfides. Arsenic in sulfides occurs in anionic and cationic forms, i.e., it shows both the common substitution for S22− and the substitution for Fe recently discovered in some hydrothermal pyrites. Tungsten was present as W(VI) in distorted octahedral (3+3) coordination. The EXAFS data confirm the absence or minor contribution of individual W-rich minerals such as scheelite or ferberite to W mass balance in the studied samples. These data show that Ge, W, and probably some As are scavenged via formation of insoluble, oxygen-bridged metal organic complexes in lignite. Destruction of the organic ligands responsible for fixing Ge and W (As) in these lignites is required for liberating the metals, e.g. from waste materials. Geochemical modelling suggests that Ge, W, Be and As all can be extracted from granitic rocks by dilute, low temperature hydrothermal fluids. Germanium is transported mainly as the tetrahedral Ge(OH)4(aq) complex, but fixed as an octahedral oxy-bridged organic complex. The same situation is valid for W, which is transported at the tetrahedral tungstate ion, but most likely scavenged via formation of a 6-coordinated metal-organic species. The Ge-Be-W±As association in Ge-rich coals reflects the source of the metals as well as related scavenging mechanisms.

Abstract: Im vorliegenden Beitrag werden beispielhaft unterschiedliche Ansätze des Risikomanagements und das Verständnis von Nachhaltigkeit in der Wasserwirtschaft dargelegt. Die Darstellung richtet sich insbesondere an Leser aus anderen Fachdisziplinen, wie das Rechts- und Finanzwesen, den Fahrzeug- und Maschinenbau oder auch die sozialen Berufe. Die Zusammenhänge werden überblicksartig mit einzelnen konkreten Beispielen dargestellt mit dem Fokus auf die grundsätzlichen Denk- und Vorgehensweisen.

Abstract: Apart from some notable exceptions, the sound governance of transboundary aquifers (coupled or uncoupled to rivers) is seriously lacking in most regions of the world, despite a highly successful 20-year ISARM initiative. The distinction between regions of water abundance (as in the Haute Savoie–Geneva aquifers) and those of water scarcity (\textless1000 m3/an/capita), as in the Rum-Saq aquifer, ought to be a driver for the urgency in adopting sound governance. In the latter regions, however, such an urgent response faces too many hurdles (institutional, financial, and weak capacity). Climate change, one of the global megatrends (among demography, economic shift, resources stress, urbanization, and novel viruses such as COVID-19), will exacerbate the problem in the coming decade and beyond. This chapter provides an critical perspective on the status of this subsurface asset in 570 or so, domestic and transboundary aquifers of the world (self-identified by country experts), while taking full account of their interconnections, or not, with surface waters. This critical perspective will be grounded in two important factors, first the hiatus in adoption by countries of the evolving international water law and guidance on transboundary aquifers (the Draft Articles, which provide legal pathways for collaboration or eventually dispute resolution), and second the framework of the sustainable development goals (SDG) 6 (clean water and sanitation), which countries have committed themselves to with reference to transboundary waters. The critical perspective finds that despite the lack of momentum in adopting formal global norms, sporadic cooperation and collaboration is continuing and is well received, when delivered methodically through the support of international agencies. The findings of the critical perspective are that even if water-related SDGs will have been achieved across the world, it would contribute precious little to meaningful enhancement of governance of transboundary aquifers, unless they have been explicitly addressed in terms that are tangible to decision makers, such as the impact of disregarding them on the current or future national GDP. The onset of a “new socioeconomic normal” in the aftermath of COVID-19 could further defer meaningful progress, taking the example of Latin America, where a 5% decline has been forecast for 2020. With such declines in the finances of governments, attention to shared aquifer resources may well decline even further. Urgent wise reaction to this possibility must be a priority for the professional science-policy community.