Abstract: The site of Udhruh is located in the arid desert of southern Jordan, about 15 km to the east of Petra. The site was built by the Nabataeans but expanded by the Romans (as a defensive site) and was continuously occupied until the Early Islamic period. It receives less than the 200 mm of annual precipitation, which is crucial for agricultural cultivation. Archaeological evidence from earlier excavations together with new data from several survey projects indicate that areas around Udhruh were cultivated throughout the Roman, Byzantine, and Early Islamic periods (300 BCE–800 CE). The fundamental question is: how did the people of Udhruh sustain their community in the desert, and how did they transform the desert into arable land? The landscape could be utilised thanks to sophisticated water management and irrigation techniques. At least four underground qanat systems were identified providing Udhruh with access to groundwater. At the terminal end of the qanat systems, several types of closed surface channels conveyed the water to reservoirs, which subsequently distributed the water to the field systems. The water systems of Udhruh differ from the well-known Nabataean systems in the surrounding area. As Udhruh was taken over by the Roman army in 106 CE, this study analyses how the Nabataean water systems continued to function and adapt through the Roman and Byzantine periods. A complete understanding of Udhruh’s water systems helps to reconstruct past land use, agricultural activity, and irrigation practices in a currently arid region.

Abstract: Living in a harsh, desert climate, Omani rural communities have developed locally-appropriate knowledge to deal with water scarcity. Similar to the qanat, the aflaj taps into the natural water table and uses a gravity system to channel water through underground channels to villages. Traditional techniques of water management, such as the aflaj, represents a way of adapting to and coping with difficult climates which have persisted for millennia. However, knowledge systems have often ‘decayed’ with the onset of modernity. These management systems, which developed concurrently with early Omani date palm cultivation, have defined customary and hereditary water rights which are in decline. This article uses Ostrom’s Common Pool Resource (CPR) framework, which prioritises the collective management of shared resources to maximise the benefit for all involved and avoid diminishing benefits that are created by the pursuit of individual goals. Using this framework, this article’s evaluation of the literature found that traditional aflaj management systems have a great capacity to evolve and, therefore, the aflaj represents both a dying system, and a potential for climate adaptation. Historically, aflaj have been managed by ancient water users associations, which provide social controls and govern usage norms. The findings of this review are that the aflaj system’s ability to respond to pressures of modernity from competing institutions, including markets, and embedded social capital mechanisms will influence its capacity to mitigate uncertain hydrology and climate. This article suggests ways in which the management of the aflaj can adapt to a multiple institutional framework to ‘transform’ collective water management.

Abstract: Elevated groundwater nitrate levels are common in drylands, often in excess of WHO guidelines, with concern for human and animal health. In light of recent attempts to identify nitrate sources in the Kalahari this paper presents the first unsaturated zone (USZ) nitrate profiles and recharge rate estimates for the important transboundary Stampriet Basin, alongside the first rainfall chemistry records. Elevated subsurface nitrate reaches 100–250 and 250–525 mg/L NO3–N, with NO3–N/Cl of 4–12, indicating input above evapotranspiration. Chloride mass balance recharge rates range from 4 to 27 mm/y, indicating a vertical movement of these nitrate pulses toward the water table over multi-decadal timescales. These profiles are sampled from dune crests, away from high concentrations of animals and without termite mounds. Given low-density animal grazing is unlikely to contribute consistent spot-scale nitrate over decades, these profiles give an initial estimate of naturally-produced concentrations. This insight is important for the management of the Stampriet Basin and wider Kalahari groundwater. This study expands our knowledge about elevated nitrate in dryland USZs, demonstrating that it can occur as pulses, probably in response to transient vegetation cover and that it is not limited to long-residence time USZs with very limited downward moisture flux (recharge).

Abstract: Elevated groundwater nitrate levels are common in drylands, often in excess of WHO guidelines, with concern for human and animal health. In light of recent attempts to identify nitrate sources in the Kalahari this paper presents the first unsaturated zone (USZ) nitrate profiles and recharge rate estimates for the important transboundary Stampriet Basin, alongside the first rainfall chemistry records. Elevated subsurface nitrate reaches 100–250 and 250–525 mg/L NO3–N, with NO3–N/Cl of 4–12, indicating input above evapotranspiration. Chloride mass balance recharge rates range from 4 to 27 mm/y, indicating a vertical movement of these nitrate pulses toward the water table over multi-decadal timescales. These profiles are sampled from dune crests, away from high concentrations of animals and without termite mounds. Given low-density animal grazing is unlikely to contribute consistent spot-scale nitrate over decades, these profiles give an initial estimate of naturally-produced concentrations. This insight is important for the management of the Stampriet Basin and wider Kalahari groundwater. This study expands our knowledge about elevated nitrate in dryland USZs, demonstrating that it can occur as pulses, probably in response to transient vegetation cover and that it is not limited to long-residence time USZs with very limited downward moisture flux (recharge).